What Is The Cost Of Bmw Valve Cover?

Black Athena



The modern global civilization, according to the dominant Eurocentric model, is the product of an intellectual adventure started from scratch with the ancient Greeks, the result of exceptional and unprecedented acquisitions without history? Or the greek concept of genius (read: "Europe") as the sole source of civilization and the oldest is simply a racist and Eurocentric myth? In the latter the so-called miracle greek has served as a base the illusions of European cultural superiority (especially in the nineteenth century) and to free the history of European civilization from any debt to the civilization (certainly more old) located in the region under which the agricultural revolution in the ancient world: the Sahara desert, once fertile, and Ethiopia, through Egypt, Palestine and Phoenicia as far as Syria, Anatolia, Mesopotamia , Iran - including the Fertile Crescent and then the smallest - and the Indus valley. Minoan Crete, Mycenaean and later, it occupies a strategic position as the first European civilization in the eastern Mediterranean, both as an outpost of the oldest Egyptian and Asian cultures the West. Anticipating the subsequent dependence of European civilization from the medieval Jewish and Arab sources, Bernal argues that there is a vital contribution "Afro-Asiatic" the same origins of Greek civilization (or rather African and Asian, that is probably only one of the Afro-Asiatic language families involved), then became the European and North Atlantic today, subject to an ongoing process of globalization. The monumental work of Bernal, Black Athena, conceived as a tetralogy of which have been published so far the first two volumes, addresses these problems by following two main perspectives. The first volume, as well as presenting a preview very ambitious but very deliberate and reasoned with few references in support of promising discoveries from the opera as a whole, is essentially a fascinating study of art history and sociology of knowledge on the European academic culture. It traces the historical awareness of cultural producers from European intellectual debt to ancient Europe to Africa and Asia, and the subsequent repression of such awareness with the invention of the ancient greek miracle. The other perspective, of which the second volume is the first part is a review of converging evidence from an historical, archaeological, linguistic and mythological evidence that the debt culture. This dependence is symbolized in the historical re-interpretation of Bernal (on the basis of Herodotus) the myth of Athena, apparently the most ostentatious of the ancient Hellenic Greek gods, indeed emulation device of the goddess Neith of Sais, and then legitimately dubbed "Black Athena" (Herodotus, Histories, II, 28, 59, 83 etc.).. The identification of Neith with Athena was not confined to Herodotus, but it was generally agreed in the ancient Greco-Roman. Bernal's work so far has been the vicissitudes of life. The classicists, who do not consider it a strong criticism of the Eurocentric intellectual culture of the North Atlantic world taken as a whole, but an accusation hurled against their own discipline by an author who insists on playing a role as an outsider, I have often dismissed wrongly, has been better - especially before the publication of the second volume - with specialists in archeology, culture and languages \u200b\u200bof the Ancient Near East and comparative religion. Almost all critics were impressed by the depth and breadth of the doctrine of Bernal, but dismayed by its distance from the discussions. The environment that hailed Bernal's central thesis is that African American intellectual circles. In this context the great significance of the current Black Athena has been rightly recognized, not so much as a kind of purely academic review a history of ancient and distant, but as a revolutionary contribution to the global politics of knowledge in our time.
However, as the author of an academic white upper-class extraction, the impact of Black Athena has been remarkable. This fact contributes to the construction of a black militant, offering an alternative: do not waste full of contempt, or similar self-congratulation as the negritude of Senghor and Césaire who opposes the dominant model white North Atlantic, but short of that model. No coincidence that many criticisms are based also on the alert sparked by the aggressive politicization of the academy and the attrition that has to confront militant Afrocentrism. Have been numerous academic studies outside the context of the debate about Black Athena who insisted on the fundamental continuity between the civilizations of the Ancient Near East. These approaches have revived the old adage Ex Oriente Lux, which contains the second Bernal in fragmentary form the "ancient model" (this according to him in many classical authors, including Herodotus) of debt recognized in Greece - and thus the whole of Europe - against the ancient Near East. This motto has been rejected during the Enlightenment. "Today is the North that the light comes to us" (Voltaire, Letter to Catherine II of Russia, 1771). Ex Oriente Lux was in fact for decades as the Dutch Academy for the Study of the Ancient Near East and published by this journal. Although the heavy indebtedness of European culture against the Ancient Near East is no longer a secret like a hundred years ago, it met with hostile reception up to the eighties, for which Bernal to be given credit for having spread this crucial insight. Black Athena has done much to make it accessible to cultural clubs that had badly needed to construct and reconstruct their identities. Moreover, the original over-Bernal does not consider his argument: "It should be clear to any reader that my books are based on a tradition of modern study. The ideas and information that I use does not always come from samples of conventional wisdom, but very few historical hypotheses advanced by Black Athena are original. Its originality comes from having put together and made central information that were previously scattered and remote. " It is an indisputable fact that production systems (in part), language, deities, shrines, myths, magic, astrology, alphabet, mathematics, nautical arts and commercial arts of the ancient Greeks were not original inventions, but they were clearly identifiable antecedents among peoples neighbors with more established cultural traditions. The probable conclusions already partially anticipated in the first volume of Black Athena - but it should not and could not be discussed seriously before the full publication of subsequent volumes - had provoked a debate about the possible antecedents of Egyptian science and philosophy of Classical Greece. Several critics deplore the supposed incompetence with which Bernal refers to a current knowledge of the Egyptian - often with the name of obscurity - is alleged to permeate European culture since the late antiquity. It is difficult to know whether the views of liquidating these critics derive simply from their personal disappointment in seeing the so-called "pseudoscience", such as astrology, geomancy and alchemy, elevated to the rank of a respectable vehicle for secret transmission of knowledge is the way many Occultists have considered the issue over the centuries. Some recent studies on the Hermetic tradition, respected by the academic point of view and without the slightest connection with the debate about Black Athena, come similar conclusions. They consider the European esotericism a vehicle, not directly thought of ancient Egypt's dynastic period which extends over the three millennia before the era of vulgar, but certainly a vehicle of esoteric thought of late antiquity, in fact, details on continuity the latter with the dynastic period have yet to be determined by Egyptologists, but you can not subtract from an overall impression of continuity. Whatever the truth, from late antiquity to the Enlightenment European intellectual production in the esoteric field was massive, if not dominant, giving rise to an enormous body of literature that few researchers can be said to have competently examined; it must be said that the raids in this area of \u200b\u200bBernal are courageous and inspiring. A considerable part of the second volume of Black Athena is dedicated to a discussion that considers the paucity of archaeological traces the result of academic myopia, urging us to consider the documents available in a new light. In fact, the documentary evidence were not really low, even in the mid-eighties when Black Athena was conceived. Yet few were convinced by the argument at the beginning of Bernal in that regard. You must acknowledge the contribution Egyptian, or in general of the ancient Near East as essential to the classical Greek civilization (theory of diffusion) and at the same time that Athena was born from a supposed Egyptian model, with which the bonds have been gradually cut, in a process of transformation originated from the integration with the emerging local culture (thesis of the next location). Athena has a cult so precise that it becomes a symbol of local cultural identity of acquisitions that are specifically Greek. The origins of Greek civilization is not in the clear opposition between Afro-Asiatic and Indo-Europeans.

(translation by Marion Pelaia)

http://www.shikanda.net/ancient_models/gen3/aankten3.html
http://www.shikanda.net/afrocentrism/index.htm

Best Ps3 Amplifier Reciever

yunus




The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Muhammad Yunus and Grameen Bank ("Bank rural" in Bengali) - 190 other candidates who have gone before - on the ground that "have demonstrated that even the poorest of the poor can work to advance its development. " The Grameen Bank, founded by Yunus, is just a bank specialized in microfinance in helping the most disadvantaged. Muhammad Yunus was born in 1940 in Chittagong, market town of East Bengal, and has dedicated his life to the realization of projects for the emancipation from misery. As an undergraduate, he became professor of economics at the University of Chittagong, and in 1965, won a Fulbright scholarship, which provided for a continuous stay of Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, where he received his Ph.D. in 1969. He later taught at Middle Tennessee State University as Assistant Professor of Economics. During his stay in the U.S. (where he remained until 1972), she met Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, who showed him how all too often we tend to apply simple solutions to complex problems and as a concrete method of analysis can help identify solutions for the future much more than many abstract postulates. Returning to his homeland, Yunus, after a brief stint as a representative of the Government in the General Economics Division of Bangladesh, he was Professor of Economics and Director of the Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, from 1972 to 1989. In 1976 he launched the initiative of the Grameen Bank, the first ethical bank in the world, demonstrating that, by granting tiny loans to poor families, can do more than with the traditional policies of foreign aid: the recipe is very simple, is that to increase the income of the poor by promoting business growth (and market) at the lowest level of the economy. Muhammad Yunus, since 1983, is also the director of the Grameen Bank. Member of numerous committees - National and global - in the fields of education, disaster preparedness, health and economic development programs, banking, population, received large amounts of major international awards. Creator of the Grameen Bank and, therefore, defined by the media the "Banker to the Poor", Bangladesh has promoted the "micro-credit project, which has come to affect 72,096 villages (86% of the entire country), and over 2,247 agencies three million people. This model has spread, directly or indirectly, in the five continents (through hundreds of banks like the Grameen), involving more than six and a half million of beneficiaries, not only in developing countries. The Grameen Bank has specialized in particular loans in the "base" of $ 100 and allowed thus to create the conditions essential to start self-employment to millions of people, achieving an overall net income, which, in 2005, for example , was 1,000,441,986 taka (more than fifteen million dollars). Of great importance is the role of women, who are the main protagonists of the experiment of Yunus (97% of the total borrowers). His model of solidarity, also was applied by the World Bank and other international organizations. Starting from the study of economics a village of Bengal, Muhammad Yunus realized that, while the most prosperous countries in the constraint to development was the lack of capital and credit for economic activities in less developed countries would have needed was a policy of small loans, to promote 'emancipation of subsistence economy, broaden the economic base and enhance the entrepreneurial capacity of the poor. The result of this bold and innovative decision was extraordinary. As he reminded the skeptics, convinced that after the success of financing activities in the first village, the project would not work: "We did it in twenty villages and it worked. Now we have done in all states and work. The return of the money is more than 99%. The bank increased its profits every year, people radically change their lives for the mere fact of having the money and take advantage of skills, creativity and intelligence to change their lives. " The formula of the Grameen Bank has been tested with similar and more positive effects throughout the world. In Bangladesh, where thirty years ago began the first experiments, a significant portion of loans is now earmarked for purchases of small but comfortable houses, improvement of living conditions, exploitation of land resources, conduct a profitable employment. This funding have encouraged the development of an increasingly mature and build a more modern and tolerant society. Muhammad Yunus, therefore, proposed a model that showed how to balance two factors often considered the antithesis: on the one hand, the creative power of dreams, desires, hope and, second, pragmatism, the ' attention to the reality in all its forms, even the most raw. The jury of the Nobel Prize, that a "lasting peace can not be achieved unless large population groups find ways not to get out of poverty," shows that the economy can make a vital contribution to freedom and dignity of men, if used with intelligence, openness and a sense of concreteness. For this, the economist Muhammd Yunus has won this prestigious award.

Invitation Card Wording For Lohri

The Pillars of Hercules in Greek classical literature were to indicate the extreme limit of the known world, as well as a geographical concept and expressed a philosophical concept of limits of knowledge, border pass for scientific progress.
E 'therefore likely that over time their real geographical location has been moved with the progress of exploration or military conquest. According to the latest interpretations and accredited in the scientific world internationally, due to the journalist Sergio Frau, the Pillars of Hercules were originally identified as two islands in the Strait of Sicily, and only in the third century BC, the great geographer Eratosthenes, in the campaigns of Alexander the Great that expanded in the current Afghanistan to the east the known way, he moved to the western border of the greek world in order to preserve the centrality of Greece, identifying the Pillars of Hercules with the Strait of Gibraltar. Related to the problem of placement of the Pillars of Hercules is the location of Atlantis, the fabled continent rich in silver and metal, located, according to the accounts of Plato, as well as the columns.

Difference Half Head Whole Head Hilights

Tartessus Pillars of Hercules?

Best Cleaning Kit Ar 15

Tartessus


Tartessus is one of the many archaeological mysteries that beset scholars. Mentioned several times in antiquity, was placed in Spain, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir. Tartessus, a city founded in prehistoric times by an Iberian population, which is almost nothing left because of the profound Romanization of the Iberian Peninsula, is mentioned in many classic texts and even in the scriptures. However, apart from some limited news, the story of Tartessus is largely unknown. The study of civilization Tartessus from a reference in the Critias Plato:
"His (Atlas) and sister born after him, who had touched the far side of the island towards the Pillars of Hercules, in that region now that stretch of sea is called Gadir was called Eumelus, which in their language is said Gadeirus: and his name was able to call themselves that country. "

In that area was located in the city of Gades, now Cadiz, in the Platonic text which gave its name to Gadir (or, according to Plato, the opposite). The city of Gades was founded by the Phoenicians of Tyre around 1100 BC, on an island 30 km south-west from Tartessus. Gades was a commercial colony, which maintain relations with its trading nearby town of Tartessus, extremely rich in raw materials, including the Silver was very important. One of the earliest references to Tartessus found in the Bible, in which the books of Kings, 22, reads:
"The king (Solomon) had in the Red Sea, the fleet of Hiram, and the fleet of ocean-going ships, and every three years the fleet of ships from Tarshish brought gold, silver, ivory, apes and peacocks. "

antiquity, Tartessus was considered very rich and prosperous. The city of Tartessus, which was located near the Strait of Gibraltar, has traded with Europe than with Africa and was little known to the Greeks. The first to arrive at Tartessus were the Phoenicians as evidenced by this Strabo's song, taken from the "Geography" (Book III, 2.14):
"I contend that these places have reported about the Phoenicians: they occupied it since before Homer and the best regions of Iberia and Libya continued to be owners of those sites as long as the Romans did not broke the rule. Again, these are evidence of the wealth of Iberia: the Carthaginians, who conquered the region by force under the command of the boat, historians say, they found that the inhabitants of the dishes used Turdetania and pithoi (jars for food) of silver. One can therefore understand how the people of this area, especially the leaders, are renowned for being long-lived thanks to the exceptional situation where some live [...] call the current Carteia Tartessus.
The Carthaginians conquered the city before the invasion of Tartessos of Hamilcar Barca (in 237 BC) in Spain, namely in the sixth century BC However, the Phoenicians practiced the coast of Spain even before I Of Tartessus millennium BC and its civilization were very few artifacts, found during excavations of Professor Adolf Schulten in Erlangen, with the help of the geologist and archaeologist Bonsor Jessen, in the twenties of the twentieth century. Archaeologists in 1923 found themselves a ring with strange inscriptions, with similar characters and greek alphabet Etruscan, then find a block of masonry, which according to Schulten, demonstrated the existence of two cities, one of the third millennium BC and the other of fifteen hundred BC. The excavations were interrupted because of the excessive height of the water table and to archaeologists, therefore, came to the conclusion that the city of Tartessus were to be sunk. The Phoenicians arrived in the area of \u200b\u200bTartessos around 1100 BC and founded the colony of Ha-Gadir (classical Gadir, now Cadiz), located at the time on an island and became, later, a peninsula. Here
cme describes Pliny in Natural History: Book IV 0.119-120:
"But the end of the Betic, 25 miles from the entrance of the strait, is the island of Cadiz long as Polybius writes, 12 miles wide and 3. [...] The island houses a city with inhabitants of Roman citizenship, called Augustana Giulia city of Cadiz (Gades). From the side that looks to Spain, about 100 steps, there is another island ... where before there was the city of Cadiz. E 'call ... Giunonide by the natives. Timaeus says that the biggest island is called by them Cotinus, but our people call tarts, and the Carthaginians Gadir, which is the word for "hedge" in Punic.
After the conquest of Carthage, not of Tartessos heard from again.

You keep talking about Tartessus in Herodotus (Book I, 163), but the description that he makes is, of course, his contemporary:
"Once in Tartessus became very Friends of the king of that name was Tartessus Argantonio, who ruled for 80 years, and lived around 120 years. To him the Focei became so dear that first asked them to leave their country and settle in the land where they wanted, and then, because he could not persuade them, since they know that the Medes were growing in power and gave them money for belts the city walls. It gave no savings, the circuit of the walls of Focea measure in fact quite a few stages, and that's it of large stones and well connected. "
In this step, it reconfirmed the position of Tartessos (Book IV, 152):
" E because the wind never stopped blowing, through the Pillars of Hercules (the Sami) Tartessus reached under the guidance of a god. "
Herodotus confirms the general idea that Tartessus was an extremely rich and that the main goods traded it was silver. Tartessus was mentioned almost as a myth, but its civilization was real. In the area Tartessus lived a population of highly evolved, certainly influenced by the city: the Turdetani. Strabo, in his "Geography" (Book III, 1.6), gives some interesting information about this civilization:
"The region takes its name from the river or Betica Turdetania of its inhabitants and residents, Turdetani, are also known as Turduli, and some suggest the same people with two names, while others think of two different people, among them There is also Polybius, whereby Turduli live in the north along with Turdetani, but now between the two peoples, there is no difference. These are considered the most learned among the Iberians, so that you are writing and keep written chronicles of their early history, and read poems in verse, old, say, 6000 years, the other Iberians you are writing, but not one form, or indeed of a single language. "
I Turdetani (or Turduli) lived in the area of \u200b\u200bTartessos, which, as mentioned, was situated at the mouth of the river Betis (Guadalquivir). I Turdetani possessed an alphabet and a long historical memory, demonstrating a highly advanced civilization. In the south-eastern Spain was found (away from Tartessus, but also belonging to the Hispanic culture) is a large statue that was dubbed "the Lady of Elche." The statue is a true work of art, carefully finished, thanks to the great skill of its author. As has been written (Book III, 2.11):
"Not far from Castal is the mountain which is said to be born Betis called Silvery, because of the silver mines that are found there. It seems [...] the ancients called the Betis Tartessus and Gadeira, with all the neighboring islands, Erytheia. [...] Since the river has two sources, it is said that once, in the middle ground, there was a town called, as the River, Tartessus, the region is called Tartesside, occupied today by Turduli. Instead Eratosthenes says that the region adjacent to Calpe called Tartesside Erytheia and was called "Fortunate Islands".
Here is remembered as Tartessus mining area. In addition, the city is described as "land between two rivers", echoing the myth Lucky Island, a land to the west, identified with Atlantis. The Fortunate Islands, in addition, in ancient times were identified with the Canary Islands, also referred to as the remains of Atlantis.
Tartessus then was viewed in antiquity as a place of immense wealth and earnings, heir to a prosperous and advanced civilization, which preceded the Celtic invasions. Advancement culture of the area, according to Strabo, dates back to 6000 BC, and perhaps civilization in the Western part of Spain was more ancient than has ever been said. The position of Tartessos Atlantic area, its extreme antiquity and the reference to Plato's Atlantis lands near the Pillars of Hercules suggest that Tartessus itself derives from the Atlantic civilization known under the name of Atlantis. In fact, Atlantis, which extended its territories to Egypt and Greece (and, of course, Spain) was probably founded on the coast of the Iberian colonies, including Tartessus for the mining trade. After the destruction of Atlantis and the end of civilization Previous Tartessus must have been isolated, but, because of the abundance of raw materials and sufficient economic independence, managed to maintain their cultural identity, derived from Atlantis. Until Tartessus remained isolated from the populations of the Mediterranean, was not affected by conflicts. With the arrival of the Phoenicians, the first, and the Greeks, then, the city ended up being rival of Carthage and was presumably destroyed by this. By the end of Tartessos, that culture "Atlantis" which still survived disappeared, leaving only a few fragments of his memory.
however, was not yet provided answers to some questions. The vessels Tartessus, despite the disappearance of Atlantis bridge to the "opposite continent ', continued to head to the Americas? The Carthaginians, retracing the routes mapped out by the sailors Tartessus, ocean voyages, at least until reaching the Azores? The connection between Atlantis and Tartessus is very likely and, if one day the city of Tartessus were found, would provide the first real evidence of the mythical Atlantis.
Greeks with the word Tartessus indicated the far West, from which came the metals. In a second time the name was located in southern Spain (Andalusia), a region which also is mentioned in the Bible as Tarshish, and with which even Solomon would keep trade relations. And 'certain that the Phoenicians were the domain of the Mediterranean in the eighth century BC, after a victorious struggle against Tartessus. These could even briefly, during the battles between Tyre and Assyria, to have some dominance. But, re-established the Phoenician colonial empire, the Tartessus was subdued until the sixth century BC, when it took over the Mediterranean landscape in thalassocracy mouth. At this happened, then, the dominance of Carthage, which destroyed around 500 BC Tartessus seems that the ancient civilizations of Tartessos since prehistoric times were highly developed. The excavations carried out by Schulten and Bouse, while revealing significant traces of that civilization, did not arrive to discover the remains of the great city described by the Periplus of Avieno, it is a dire Ona Maritima, localizzata in non ben precisato point, vicino al Guadalquivir delta.

What Kind Of Curtain Can I Put At The Back Door

blanca cadiz afrodita


... And so were born, oh Cadiz, white
Aphrodite amid the waves.
Levantandas the mists of the ocean, could you in your mirrors

contemplate the most beautiful girl appeared
between sea and sky of the West. You brought in your hands
Phoenician
olives and a necklace to Tarshish, for your powerful
silver throat.
It will open your eyes, reclining on her forehead and
you were rich, the greedy
fishing in the wind tended
Our Sea, victorious, his name.

(Rafael Alberti, Ora maritima)

Prison Tycoon Online Games

candid


"We go into another world," said Candide, "is certainly one that all is well. Why must admit that you might cry a little 'about what in our case, in physics and morals. " "I love you with all my heart," said Cunegonde, "but my mind is still all appalled by what I saw and suffered." "Everything will be alright," replied Candide, "the sea of \u200b\u200bthis new world is already better than our European seas, is quieter, and the winds are more constant. And 'certainly the new world the best of possible worlds." "God forbid!" said Cunegonde, "but I was so terribly unhappy in my heart that I was almost closed to hope."

Babysitter Bath Stories

Honey X Honey Drop Scan Raw

night song of the sailors Andalusian duende


From Cadiz to Gibraltar,
what a beautiful way!
The sea knows my step by

sighs Oh, girl, girl,
how many ships in the port of Malaga! From Cadiz to Seville

those beautiful lemons! The lemon
recognize me from
sighs.
Ah, girl, girl,
how many ships in the port of Malaga! From Seville to Carmona

there is not even a knife.
The crescent cut, and the wind passes
, wounded.
Oh boy
guy waves me steal the horse! In saline
death
I forgot you, my love. Who wants a heart

ask of my oblivion.
Oh, boy, boy
waves I steal your horse!
Cadiz, the sea covers you,
not go that way.
Seville, set up
order not to drown in river.
Ah, girl!
Oh, boy!
What a beautiful way!

How many ships in port and the beach, that's cold!

(Federico García Lorca)

Sore Back Of Tongue After Vomitting

In Andalusia, the rock of Jaén and Cádiz shell, people speak constantly of duende, and finds out just appears effective with instinct. The wonderful cantaor El Lebrija, creator of Debla, said: "The days I do not know that I sing with duende rivals' Malena one day, the old gypsy dancer, played by Brailowsky heard a snippet of Bach said," Olé! Now that has duende, "and he became impatient with Gluck, with Brahms and Darius Milhaud. And Manuel Torres, the man of culture in the most blood I've ever met, listening to the same failed his Night of the Generalife, uttered this wonderful phrase: "All that sounds blacks has duende." There is no greater truth. Blacks
These sounds are the mystery, the roots that sink in the mire that we all know that all ignore it, but where it comes from what is substantial in the art. Sounds blacks, said the English people, and this agrees with Goethe, speaking of Paganini, gives us the definition of duende, "the mysterious power that everyone feels and no philosopher explains."
So then, the duende is a power and not an act, is a struggle and not a thought. I heard from an old guitar teacher: 'The duende is not in the throat, the duende salt inside the soles of the feet. " That is, not a matter of right, but to live authentically, or blood, that is, ancient culture, creating in place.

Samsung Lcd Tv Bottom Cover

crossroads


Cadiz, the oldest urban center of the West, has always struck those who saw it for the first time, but also those who already knew her thoroughly, for its unique geographical position. [1] This town, located the extreme edge of Spain, overlooking the Atlantic coastline and soaring to the most diverse sea lanes has long been the center of world traffic, the line between civilization and different worlds, through which it entered in the report, creating a dense network trade relations. One of the main reasons
Gaditana expansion was established by the environmental conditions extremely favorable - among the best in the continent Europe - where were her ribs as end of the maritime connections with the lands overseas. [2]
course it was not only the location of the site to determine the exceptional development of Cadiz, which began with the discovery of ' America and reached its peak in the age "golden" of the eighteenth century, but the peculiarities of the place has been one of the key factors for the understanding of all phases of the history Gaditana. [3] And the sea, "the Atlantic of Cadiz "- to paraphrase the words of Chaunu on Seville - [4] became more and more, from the time of descubrimiento, the immense space through which global trade expanded, overtaking the Mediterranean as a center of trade and interest of the states with the most advanced commercial facilities. Braudel, in this regard, has shown that this fundamental change in the history of the seas and their dominance has taken place very gradually and that the Mediterranean has contributed to the "construction" of the English Atlantic. [5] The formation of more
important trade route in the western world, the Carrera de Indias, which crossed the path and return the Atlantic, the "Sea of \u200b\u200bDarkness" [6] represented almost physically the evolution of the relationship between Europe and the New world, the formation of a new Atlantic economy. Economy that would be imposed, the amount and the value of goods traded through the fleets that sailed the ocean and connecting the main ports - of which soon became part also Cadiz - who founded the system of links and international traffic [7].
The new waterway was not limited to facilitate the irradiation of sea communications to the distant places overseas, but outlined an event of great general value of innovation. In fact, the path of transatlantic traffic is not only the outward and return journey of the merchant vessels that connected the port of Veracruz with those Gaditano, Portobelo and Cartagena, but it was the concrete means through which establish economic relations between the two companies, producing considerable extent on the consequences of each. [8]
Cadiz, thanks to its special status city located at the intersection of Atlantic trade routes between East and West, between North and South, acquired the role of a major - if not the most important - trading hubs in Europe, held an economic function and, then, including financial, prominent during the English colonial domination in the Americas. In fact, "during siglo XVIII y el primer cuarto siglo XIX of, colonial hasta la Independencia, el comercio with America takes a nombre propio: Cádiz. La ciudad y su Bahía, a la sombra cases dos Siglos monopoly Sevillano, emergency a universal role in becoming a major global trading centers of the era and a major European ports. During the century reached the highest degree of planning and was a cosmopolitan city with traders, business houses and correspondents of the major European markets while the crucible of English mercantile bourgeoisie. But at the same time was the first financial center, connected not only to finance, directly or through intermediaries, the colonial trade but linked to what had to be important innovations. "[9]
Città da eccellenti popolata marinai, Pescatori Trasportatori e, perfino, corsari, è l'età with modern Cadiz, which began its ascent, first with the affirmation of the monopoly in trade with North Africa and then, with the conquest of the market for "Indies", establishing a symbiotic relationship with the Seville, which at that time represented the other side, and starting with this kind of a duopoly trade lasted about three centuries. [10]
During the first period of colonial expansion of trade, Cadiz merely act as a port of call, leaving Seville, home a thriving Burgues de negocios, the role of the commercial port: the strip of land Gaditana, then, was more favorable for the landing stop and rest, for the supply and repair of ships, but failed, partly because of the limited ability to defend itself and the difficulties of communication with the interior, to act as a terminal of ocean trades.
At this stage, Cadiz, despite the commercial monopoly of the port of Seville, gave impetus to its growth as a true metropolis of the illicit trade by establishing a network of activities "submerged" to the dissemination and distribution of contraband.
However, even in terms of trade, had to strike the hour of Cadiz, which, in the second half of the seventeenth century, began to substitute for Seville as Colonial cabecera of the market, such as "puerto y puerta de las Indias '. In this second period of rapid growth of trading activity, the bay Gaditana increasingly assumed the role of genuine 'emporium of the globe, "as described Fray Geronimo de la Concepción, [11] becoming the most" American "d Europe '. [12] Cadiz had arrived late adventure overseas, through different phases in which he had changed his own identity and commercial city had completed - through a slow but inexorable process of transformation - the historical cycle of the main European colonial market.
Gaditana The city, in the whole of its history, especially the modern and contemporary art, has been modeled the activity and maritime trade, so as to support several times, that Cadiz has always been what was his business. Or that since the sixteenth century to the early nineteenth, Cadiz has lived and thrived because of its position in American business. Or, again, that the singularity of Cadiz in all its three thousand years of history stems from the fact that one of the few English cities (if not only) in which the mercantile function predominated exclusively. Or, finally, that the two eminently geographical facts that have encouraged the development of Cadiz were the maritime and insular character and its location in one of the great crossroads of the world community [13].
This reaffirmed link between geographical and commercial traffic between the sea, navigation and exchange activities, is the thread to resume their proper perspective in order to reconstruct the events that made flights of Cadiz a case of unprecedented growth, expansion and enrichment, which occurred in the absence of natural resources and endogenous factors that have characterized capitalist development of Europe's most advanced areas. In fact, location and other environmental features of the center Gaditano have characterized the evolution from the beginning, requiring the creation of an economy to a single dimension [14].
Cadiz, free primary activities with the exception of fishing and a secondary sector limited to a few initiatives craft, had made the trade, "el norte y la guía de todo on quehacer economy." And the dominance of the merchant had made its effects felt on all aspects of city life: urban and sull'assetto on construction, the varied composition of the population, the specificity of a social structure so elementary, the lack of a dialectic between the city and the countryside, culture and societal attitudes.
The city grew according to the canons Cartesian, rigid geometry of straight lines, hardly softened by the grace and creativity in Andalusia, was characterized by a housing vertically by long and dense streets that intersect each other in search of the outlet to the sea and the buildings where they were gathered together the store, warehouse, home of the trader and the turret to scan the horizon, awaiting the arrival of ships and merchandise. [15]
The population was composed in large part by foreigners, in the city in order to give impetus to commercial activities, social stratification, then, was not particularly articulate, based on a common mercantile middle class with average income levels, economic structure, trade polarized Finally, in the absence of significant agriculture and industry, did not favor the emergence of the phenomena of dialectic and social conflict, its more complex reality.
Other aspects of city life, as the fervor and cultural associations - Cadiz was a great example of maturity and intellectual dynamism, with its three theaters, libraries, scientific institutions, the variety of cafes and clubs, botanical gardens -, or, as the animation of the streets and paseos, sophistication and luxury of the clothes, the opening in the presence, language and customs of foreigners, showed that the environment Gaditano had been influenced and shaped by cosmopolitan merchant from contamination of cultures and civilizations, typical of a city in which prevailed in an absolute sense, trade [16].
The loss of the colonial possessions overseas involved in the third decade of the nineteenth century, the vertical fall of the exchange and the final scaling of Cadiz as a mercantile city par excellence, pushing the edge of the development process and forcing it into a European worsening state of prostration. [17]
The character of the commerce was rapidly transforming: the importance of the port Gaditano was limited to the objectives of internal traffic and links with the Canary Islands. Was reduced, ie, the distribution function and exchange of the city to an extension of the market purely regional and local levels.
Cadiz, private its communications with the overseas territories, no longer the Atlantic and the colonies, without that mix that made her unique and great, screws gradually in a spiral of decline and inertia, entering the darkest period of his life of the last four centuries.
The cycle of extraordinary and unrepeatable historical events of the "mercantile capital of Europe", and was called, was closed. And Cadiz, sentenced to a heavy late against major production areas in Europe and to an isolation more evident than in the processes of trade liberalization, while not giving up hope of a return to the splendor of the "golden age", he continued to watch with nostalgia to the period of his success and supremacy. This feeling so strong pervaded even those who were passing through the bay Gaditana and could pick up some traits of a city, who lived his decline with an apparent attitude of detachment [18].



[1] "I went down below deck to seize the telescope, and when I went I saw Cadiz. The first impression I had was to question whether or not a city, then laughed, then I turned to my fellow travelers with the air of those who claim that the reassurances that he has not deceived. Cadiz seems an island of chalk. It is a large white spot in the sea without a shade dark, without a point black, without a shadow, a white clear and pure as a virgin snow-covered hill that stands upon a sky blue color of beryl and in the midst of a vast plain flooded. A long, thin strip of land links it to the mainland, all other parties is washed by the sea as a ship about to sail, no longer restrained to the shore by a chain. " So I made the image Edmondo De Amicis, in his impressions of a trip to Spain (E. De Amicis, Spain, Florence, G. Barbera Editore, 1928, pp. 378-379).

[2] The coasts of the Gulf of Cadiz are extraordinary conditions - which can be compared only those of the south-eastern coast of Portugal - for a sailing transocean navigazione. In particolare, nei mesi da maggio ad ottobre, il vento di prealisio rende il viaggio verso estremamente favorevole Canarie him.

[3] La descrizione che ne fa García-Baquero Mostra Tutta Evidenza happiness in work contraddizione un'ubicazione (asientamento) and a disposizione sfavorevole assai (situation) propizia estremamente della città: "The geographical features of the site on which up the city can not be more adverse. Lack of agriculture, due to the geological nature of the soil, water shortages, tendency to isolation, impossibility of growth, are the traits that characterize the place where the city sits. (...) Cadiz is not a product of their settlement, but its situation. In fact, limited in the horizontal plane, compressed in the perimeter walls, a prisoner of the sea, Cadiz was a city that could not survive by itself. But precisely the same sea that opened imprisoned him in return, a wealth of possibilities. According to the peculiarities of Braudel gives the peninsulas, their relative isolation from the masses is balanced by its unlimited opening to the sea. Cadiz could not be an exception. Was born with a compelling and commercial maritime vocation. (...) Without agriculture or industry, lacks the most necessary for life, Cadiz will depend closely, throughout their history, their only source of livelihood: the sea "(A. García-Baquero González, colonial and revolutionary wars Commerce. The economic decline following Cádiz American emancipation, Sevilla, Escuela de Estudios Hispano-American, 1972, p. 29).

[4] See H. Chaunu, P. Chaunu, Séville et l'Atlantique (1504-1650), 12 voll., Paris, SEVP, 1955-1960.

[5] Braudel, intitolando a paragrafo Civiltà della sua operates its e imperi del Mediterraneo "Parecchi Atlantici" Riley: "L'Atlantic Secolo XVI è l'associazione, the coesistenza più or meno perfect for many spaces in part self-employed. (...) How will these oceans bring to life the head of the Mediterranean, and in what way it works through their wide open spaces? The traditional story presented in the past all these oceans, collectively, as the number one enemy of the Inland Sea, as the space had subjugated the wider area of \u200b\u200bsmall size. This means simplifying things. Exaggeration for exaggeration, it would be better to say that the Mediterranean has long dominated its huge neighbor and that its decline can be explained, among other things, the fact that this domain was less than one day. (...) Throughout the sixteenth century, it is not that universe abandoned and impoverished that the journeys of Columbus and Vasco de Gama would suddenly ruined. Instead, it builds and rebuilds the Atlantic and project their own images in the Iberian New World. (...) The small Mediterranean in the heart of the immense space that surrounds it, is living up to the 1600 economy, agile, dominant. The big story has not dropped precipitously at the beginning of the century, with arms and baggage. The retreat will ring true, for it until later '(F. Braudel, Civilization and empires of the Mediterranean in the Age of Philip II, Torino, Einaudi, 1976, vol. I, pp. 229-231 and p. 236; and . orig. La Mediterranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'époque de Philippe II, Paris, Librairie Armand Colin, 1949).

[6] was questa l'espressione with quale gli arabi indicavano l'Atlantic Ocean.

[7] Cf LN McAlister, Dalla alla Scoperta conquest. Spagna e Portogallo nel Mondo Nuovo 1492-1700, Bologna, il Mulino, 1992 310 and pp. 609-617, ed. orig. Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492-1700, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1985.

[8] See J. Fontana, Foreword, in A. García-Baquero González, Cádiz and the Atlantic (1717-1778). English colonial trade under the monopoly of Cadiz, Cadiz, Diputación Provincial de Cádiz, 1988, Volume I, p. XVIII.

[9] AM Bernal, The financing of the Carrera de Indias (1492-1824). Money and credit in English colonial trade with America, Sevilla, Fundación El Monte, 1992, p. 294.

[10] Infatti, come è stato osservato: "If the first Seville and Cadiz, timidly at first and splendid fullness after they became key interpretations of the world - in the historical and economic - was precisely because to what happened in 1492. And that - the discovery of a New World - (...) had a key role. (...) But (...) no reason to speak of a symbiotic port Sevilla-Cádiz, Sanlúcar involving (at the mouth of the river of Seville) and Puerto de Santa María (In the Bay of Cadiz). If Cádiz Sevilla was preferred over two centuries Sevilla and Cadiz on for one, it was political and strategic reasons, but the pieces were placed in such a way that the dual port would be for a period of more than 300 years the main stem of the Old world in its relations with the New, and to some extent, in itself, a mixture of worlds as well "(JL Comellas, Seville, Cadiz and America. The transfer and trafficking, Málaga, Editorial Arguval, 1992, p. 21 and p. 16).

[11] See G. de la Concepción, the Orb Emporium. Cadiz illustrated investigation of their former greatness, runs contest of General Rule of Spain, Amsterdam, Joan Press Bus, 1690.

[12] "Cadiz is built on the most important commercial center and dynamic of the English coast and in the true link between all the commercial and maritime Europe on one side and the vast American continent on the other, concentrating and channeling, as was said in a French commercial memory of the time, "tous les échanges qui constituent le grand commerce that ces deux parties du globe between elles font '" (A. García-Baquero González, Cádiz as General Answers Cadastre of Ensenada, in Cadiz 1753, Madrid, Tabapress, 1990, pp. 15-16).

[13] Cf A. Domínguez Ortiz, La bourgeoisie Cadiz and trade in India since the mid-seventeenth century to the relocation of the House of Trade, in the bourgeois merchants of Cadiz (1650-1868), Cádiz, Instituto de Estudios Gaditanos, 1976, J. Gómez Crespo, Cádiz maritime importance, especially in the commercial and military, in literary Boards Cádiz, 1942-1945, Cadiz, Cerón and Library Facilities Cervantes, 1946, p. 197.

[14] Come sintetizzato has acute Ramos Santana: "The position and characteristics of Cadiz - a rocky islet located at the mouth of the Mediterranean, the maritime route has exerted more influence in history man - conditioned from the very moment of its founding mythic time path of the old city of Hercules. Since then, Cádiz was tied to navigation and trade. A bond that was strengthening over the centuries to become the main seal and practically only after the discovery and conquest of America "(A. Ramos Santana, Introduction, in D. Conte Domecq, Boat Signs, Cadiz, Ingrasa and Diario de Cádiz, 1992, p. 11).

[15] I Quartieri di Cadice, corso nel Secolo XVIII, if ai canoni svilupparono in conformità cartesiani. Purtuttavia if trattava urban modello di tutto a peculiar where the streets were "almost" straight, the street corners were "almost at ninety degrees, the squares were" almost "square: this design was the result of the creativity of Andalusia, which could give sweetness and originality, even application apparently rigid principles.

[16] See JA Fernández de los Heros, Discursos sobre el comercio, Madrid, Imprenta de Antonio Espinosa, 1790.

[17] In fact, the prosperity of Cadiz depended almost exclusively on its business, which, in turn, was based on relations with the colonies overseas. Given this close relationship, any interruption of the Atlantic shipping lanes, and relations with the U.S. territories reflected heavily on the performance of commercial activities Gaditana.

[18] De Amicis makes good this new atmosphere of the city: "In truth, I was far from imagining that she was so cheerful and smiling this terrible and unfortunate Cadiz, burned by the English in the sixteenth century, bombed at the end of eighteenth, devastated by plague, and then host the fleet of Trafalgar, home of the revolutionary junta during the War of Independence, the scene of horrific carnage in the revolution of 1820, French-target bombs in 1823 and forerunner of the revolution that the cantilever from the throne Bourbons, and always restless and turbulent and first of all to launch the cry of battle. Of many events and struggles of so many cannon balls that are not nailed to the walls, as on all other tracks of the past is the inexorable destruction brush, of a white veil covering all shame. (...) But time has done worse than take away from Cadiz monuments of old, took the trade and riches, after Spain lost its possessions in America, and now lies there inert Cadiz on his rock lonely, waiting in vain for a thousand ships, which were decked with flags and festive day to cause her the tribute of the new world "(E. De Amicis, Spain, cit., pp. 381-382).

What Does Body Temperature 46 Degrees Mean?

Clarice



Clarice, glorious city, has a troubled history. More sometimes declined to reappear, always taking the first Clarice as a model of unparalleled splendor each, compared to which the present state of the city does not fail to elicit sighs at every new turn of stars. In the centuries of degradation, the city, emptied by the plague, whose height is lowered by the collapse of beams and cornices and landslides of soil, rusty and clogged because of lack of maintenance workers or holiday, it is repopulated slowly to emerge from basements and dens' s hordes of survivors who swarmed like rats driven by the frenzy of digging and gnawing, and also to scrape and patch together, like birds that nest. Cling to all that could be taken to where it was and put in another place to serve to another use: the curtains of brocade sheets from ended up doing, in marble urns planted basil, the wrought iron grills uprooted from the windows of the harem were used to roast meat on a cat-inlaid wood fires. Put up with odd pieces of Clarice useless, took a form of survival Clarice, all slums and shanties, gutters infected, crates of rabbits. Yet the ancient splendor of Clarice had not lost almost nothing, it was all there, just placed in a different order but appropriate to the needs of the people no less than before. At the time most joyous times of need were happening: a sumptuous slipped by Clarice Clarice butterfly chrysalis beggar, the new abundance the city was overflowing with new material objects buildings, new people streamed out, nothing and no one had more to do with or Clarice Clarice of the first, and most triumphantly sets up the new city at the place and name of the first Clarice , he realized most of away from, not to destroy less rapidly than the mice and mold: despite the new pride of pomp, in his heart he felt strange, incongruous, usurper. Here then is the glory of the first pieces that were saved by adapting to need more dark were moved again, here they are kept under glass bells, closed boards, laid on velvet cushions, and not because they could serve more in something, but because through them we would have liked to rebuild a city that nobody knew anything. Other deterioration, others bloom is followed to Clarice. The people and customs changed several times, remain the name, location, and items more difficult to break. Each new Clarice, compact as a living body with his and her breath smells, it shows as a jewel that remains of the ancient Clarici fragmented and death. No one knows when the Corinthian capitals have been in the top of their columns: only one of them remembers that for many years supported the basket in a poultry house where the chickens were eggs, and passes them to the Museum of the Capitals, in line with the other specimens in the collection. The order of succession of the ages has been lost, that there has been a first Clarice is widely believed, but there is no evidence that the show, the capitals may have been the first in the hen houses and in temples, urns of marble have been first sown basil in the bones of the dead. What is certain is only that: a number of objects moving in a certain area, now submerged by a number of new objects, time consuming without replacement, the rule is every time and try to mix them together. Perhaps Clarice has always been just a clatter of junk chipped, mismatched, out of order.

by: The Invisible Cities by Italo Calvino

Where Do Hiv Rashes Appear On The Body

rafael alberti

What Causes Butt Blisters

Globalization




"A historical perspective might be useful to show [...] that globalization is not particularly new, nor, in general, a folly. For thousands of years, travel and migration, trade goods or knowledge have been a form of globalization, which has contributed to human progress. And stop it would cause irreparable harm. Still, despite today's globalization is seen by many as a correlate of Western domination, the historical examination can help us to conceive of the possibility that this process occurs in the opposite direction "
(Sen, A., Globalization and freedom)


The concept of 'globalization', as known and widely published today, is related only to current or can be immediate, as it was backdated and verified in the light of major historical events that took place over several phases, at least, of modern and contemporary humanity? The answer to this question, which at first glance it might appear improper or trivial, depending on your point of view from which we place ourselves in dealing with a theme-and-a-term and continuously applicant at the same time, highly controversial. The method used, the approach to the problem and means to deepen the content as never before in this case were so crucial to load and render meaningless scientifically interesting analysis of this commitment, outside of any fashion, or blinding rush quota.

About the centuries immemorial, Amartya Sen has stated that: "Around the year one thousand the global spread of science, technology and mathematics was changing the nature of the old world, but the spread was followed to a large extent, a opposite direction to the current one. For example, high technologies such as the year one thousand paper and printing, gunpowder and sextant, watch and suspension bridge in iron chains, kites and magnetic compass, trolley on wheels and fan were known and widely used in China, but almost unknown elsewhere. Globalization has spread throughout the world, including Europe. The same thing happened in mathematics. The decimal system was born and developed in India between the second and sixth centuries and, shortly thereafter, was also used by the Arabs. These mathematical innovations reached Europe mainly in the last decades of the tenth century and began to have a significant impact at the beginning of the last millennium. Then they played a leading role in the scientific revolution that has led the transformation of Europe. Indeed, Europe would be much poorer, in terms of economic, scientific and cultural-if he had resisted the globalization of mathematics, science and technology that time "[1].

Two examples of the new and impetuous current phase of globalization is represented by the emergence of a global market and the realization of the so-called 'IT revolution', on the one hand, and the acceleration of the process of European integration on the other.

The first phenomenon, one that is fully recognized as the most obvious evidence of globalization depends on the combination of the evolution of the field of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and the organization 's economy, which led to the birth of the Net-Economy [2], ie a system in which the availability of real-time information and the ability to spread communications-and-trade without geographical limits and / or space are the basis for the success of any economic initiative, especially private type. There are those stresses, to this end, the character 'imperial' in the new economic system: an update of sorts in the continuity of the capitalist system, and the crisis of the traditional tools for training and monitoring processes of accumulation. There is, also, who points to a paradigm shift between the previous economic system, based on the goal of achieving ever higher levels of profit, and the new, more complex configuration, which assumes great significance in the possession of knowledge, or rather, the ability to understand the evolution of knowledge (know how) social. As noted: "In the background, we see the emergence of new cultural elite ambiguous profile, no longer characterized by the possession of a body of knowledge, but only the ability to intercept before the other trends and news of the moment" [3 ].

The same movement that has developed in parallel with the progress of globalization, has a unique character: indiscriminately against-the 'look-no global or for a process of' government 'from the bottom-' s-new global aspect? Or, more simply, the mere use, appropriation the tools of globalization to halt the process? The question then is whether the "anti-globalization movement is truly, as his rhetoric would suggest," because "the same anti-globalization protests are in fact one of the most globalized events in the contemporary world" [4]. However, the answer to these questions does not change the framework of the phenomenon, nor the thorough assessment and that progress must be made to understand the constraints and opportunities, the actual holding of a historical perspective and not just the virtual existence.

The second phenomenon, that has led to a decisive step forward in the process of economic integration of the European Union, adoption of the euro has its most representative symbol. The economic system (and political) emerged and consolidated as a result of Bretton Woods was focused on the prevalence of a single country-the USA-and-one currency-the dollar on the international stage. This choice was finally ousted the previous organization, based on the alternation (or coexistence) of some of the most developed nations in the key position of leadership of the international economic and financial system. During the second half of the nineteenth century, compared to a progressive strengthening of the dollar, contrasting phenomena occurred, as the organization of the common market countries Eastern Europe (CMEA), the rise of the Japanese economy and the yen, to the growth of European monetary union and the birth of the euro. The choice of a single currency for a large part of the Old Continent was the most obvious point of arrival of functionalist theories, which founded the European integration process on a gradualist vision, made up of sectoral agreements and a penchant for the -economic issues, especially the practical demonstration of a desire for growth that led to the final passing of the old barriers and internal barriers to trade within Europe, as well as the resumption of close relations between Europe and the rest of the world. In short, the euro has come to mean a symbol of unification and independence, the extension of competitive scale and affirmation of the role of 'power' of Europe, even in perspective. In this final stage, in particular, the substantial appreciation of the European currency against the dollar seems to show a new possibility of changing the system and, in particular, the opportunity to take on the euro value of an asset of refuge particular importance, as it has for a long time for gold.

This absolute and, in some ways, unexpected news-beyond-all disproportionate and inappropriate optimism seems to prefigure the opening of a new phase of international relations, within which a balance may be less established and assert a new dynamic of European economies, which already during the eighties had captured the centrality of the scene. In a nutshell, the framework of a long and undisputed hegemony of the dollar has added a new context of gradual habit of the single European currency system and an increasingly autonomous and 'strong' euro. However, a final assessment of the advantages, but also on the problems caused by the force (and appreciation) of the euro can be traced only in a few time. Meanwhile, it is worth pointing out that if the currencies in the world now there is a domain tend to be parity between euro and dollar in 'real' world, Europe must continue to build an economy worthy of its currency. On this ground, still in favor of the U.S., will play the decisive game for any future role of global leadership.

At this point, it made an assessment of the bottom: if, despite these recent events, there have been other steps or not to extend the area of \u200b\u200bhuman action and initiative, accelerating the pace of activity and growth of its 'factories'. If, in a word, 'globalization' is a rather recent phenomenon, or, conversely, has already been presented in various forms and sizes, at other times in history.

From theoretical point of view, as well the novelty-represented in general terms during the past century-from the school of "Annales" [5] should be specifically highlighted the contribution of Immanuel Wallerstein [6], that rethinking history in a very general, giving substance to the term coined from Braudel to define the Mediterranean of the sixteenth century, in its widest extent: the world-economy [7]. In this regard, Braudel observed that: "Immanuel Wallerstein there is no other world-economy outside the European Union, which was formed only in the sixteenth century, but for me the world was already divided into economic zones, more or less centralized, more or less consistent, that is, several world-economies coexisting since the Middle Ages and even ancient times, that is, long before European man possessed a precise knowledge of the total land extension [8]. However, this assessment did not prevent Braudel, Wallerstein introduction to the volume of the same , to agree on the fact that: "Every social reality is, first of all, space. But the spaces fit one inside the other, are welded together, are linked by relations of dependency. If you want to find a space self-consistent in its own extension, we are led necessarily to the infinitely small or, provided that there is a road almost autonomous, or to the larger space consistent, because of its trade and its matches, but separated from other areas of the same magnitude, which is a universe unto itself in which economies, societies and spaces are connected with each other and differ from the rest of the world "[9].

It is, therefore, a definition which clearly opens the door to that of 'globalization' (or 'globalization', meaning in French-speaking), understood as a "loss of clear boundaries in the different dimensions of everyday economics , information, ecology, technology, cross-cultural conflict and civil society, that is, after something familiar and yet incomprehensible, difficult to grasp, but radically transformed daily life, with a force clearly perceptible, forcing everyone to adapt, to find answers ". [10] The latter statement refers to a general phenomenon: the free circulation of ideas, goods and people in an increasingly 'universal', which tends to coincide with the entire planet. In this sense, globalization involves the human experience as a whole and goes far beyond a mere classification of economistic mold, covering the activities and relationships of 'humanity in all its aspects, the so-called' global society ': the same risks associated with the process of' globalization 'may be seen as-opportunity- to promote a 'second modernity', based on the values \u200b\u200bof equality, freedom, knowledge and information capacity.

In any event, the discussion so far conducted door to say, paraphrasing Wallerstein, the 'globalization' is not nothing new [11]. If you want to simplify the argument, following a very basic schematic, we can identify at least two more times-than-present in which time and space have now changed their character, they are 'shortened' considerably: the ' era of the New World and the phase of so-called 'industrial revolution' [12].

The Beginning Modern Age and, in particular, the two dates of 1492-the 'year of the discovery of America, 1519-e-l' year of the beginning of the first circumnavigation of the globe-are the watershed for the movement of center of gravity of traffic from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic (ie, the first major extension of the global economy) and mark the opening of a phase of economic globalization through trade "triangle" between the homeland, the colonies and European market. It must be said that the discovery of America and the prolongation of its effects throughout the period of the Modern Age had contributed to assume a totally new-found only in some respects the will of expansion of the Crusades and the spice routes in the Middle Ages, in search of new spaces and new relations on the globe terraqueous. As noted Dupront, with words of great efficacy imaginative: "The discovery of the world, which takes place slowly in the consciousness of the modern West, permits, from the earliest developments of its impact, to capture almost physically 'plans' man modern. dell'illimitatezza Feelings of space, attitude and willingness to possession of loneliness are the forces that are interwoven in it "[13].

However, the new frontier of the global economy, las Indias, has long represented not only their time of arrival of the initiative the adventurous voyages of exploration, technical innovations related to them and geographical discoveries, but also the starting point for the 'conquest' of a vast territory and the prevalence of a strict logic of economic dominance. Although the model of the Atlantic had many traits in common with that of commerce and navigation of the Mediterranean-Atlantic as much as to talk of a 'extroversion' Mediterranean-the oldest, you can not diminish the importance of novelty, which was based on the expansion of trade as a major lever for the connection between such different worlds, to spread a powerful mechanism for enrichment. In particular, the pattern of conquest foresaw a growth of prosperity in one way: the precious metals-and then, raw materials, imported from overseas territories in exchange for European goods of low value and low quality, except in rare cases, are targeted relentlessly to countries the most flourishing of the Old Continent, stopping only in the Iberian peninsula, which served as a great center of European mediation of wealth.

Mercantilism, a doctrine devoid of large and sophisticated theoretical basis but with a solid concrete and supported by an undisputed success in practice, managed to establish itself as a connecting element of a long historical period, which lasted until the beginning of the 'industrial revolution' . During this long period, the economy is increasingly tied to the role of States, their ability to sell the goods outside the national borders, internal protectionism and the propensity to accumulate precious metals. However, in this general context, which originated and consolidated the political power and unbalanced conditions are extremely favorable for gain, did not disappear the role of the human factor, which, indeed, was hailed by the traffic on a large scale and by ' trading activities typical of the trade, including that of large companies. The merchant (who was also a banker, insurance agent, owner, property owner and, often, industrial or agricultural entrepreneur) was not limited to develop his skills and competence in its organization, but became a connoisseur of art and the deep contents of his business and others in which gradually ventured in search of an expansion of its range, a diversity of sectors initiative and new opportunities for profit. The efforts and achievements of these men watch, diligent and innovators often depended on the fortunes of entire nations, the ability to succeed in a multitude of economic and commercial initiatives, mostly in private.

The Atlantic trade was not always equal to itself. Just look at the shift from an absolute prevalence of gold and silver on any other charge, to their progressive 'replacement' with the products and materials needed for manufacturing and, then, industrial European countries. In this way it was put into question the old model of the pacto colonial, which provided a mechanism of unequal exchange between all goods with differing value-also due to the lack of a monetary economy in colonial territories-, up to the nineteenth century to its final overcoming, at least in the most excessively oppressive. Over the centuries between the discovery of America and the 'industrial revolution' economic space of the Atlantic, the "Sea of \u200b\u200bDarkness" [14], was to begin- the formation of the Carrera de las Indias, a great tool of integration between different cultures and distant worlds. In short, the discovery of new, vast geographical areas involved, well beyond the ruinous effects of the 'conquest' and inequities of the colonial system, an unusual extension of social relations and the field of human activity, increasing the opportunities for individual success and economic growth also in the overseas territories. A process of 'globalization' certainly controversial, but so complex as to be able to offer a whole new field to each of the forces involved on both sides of the Atlantic.

The connected series of events that led to the creation of what is commonly called 'industrial revolution', depending upon the interpretation, can be considered as a fact that initially concerned the UK alone or with territorial largest in Europe. In fact, the exponents of the New Economic History, reviewing previous history, have proposed a broad framework-more-nuanced in both spatial and chronological periods of transition from the expansion of trade, the 'protoindustrializzazione', processing agricultural , to the advent of industrialization itself. The 'new economic history' has supported the idea of \u200b\u200ba gradual process of industrialization, that has not been limited to a single country, but has from the outset concerned a vast geographical space, a world-wide and articulated. When Sidney Pollard has shown a clear distinction between Europe and the internal device, identifying the former as the main place the start of the industrial processing, intended to delineate precisely this original opening to a deep economic innovation by an arc not limited Countries and productive forces [15].

Even if it were beginning to consider a more concentrated in space and time, the pace of industrialization of the phenomenon would stand out in any case, the expansion of economic opportunities and market enlargement unusual and territorial productive horizon within which they operate a large part of humanity, at least in a first-phase-in of the European continent. The production on an industrial scale, in fact, has several consequences, more or less close. First, the search for larger markets, once saturated the inside of the industrialized countries, but also the transition from protected economies to free trade, the formation and expansion of industrial capital, through the accumulation process, the intensification of massive distribution activities related to industrial products, including new forms of subordination of less developed countries, until the onset the first crisis of overproduction, such as striking sign of the change of an era [16].

The expansive nature of industrialization has become even clearer in the case of subsequent development of the United States of America, with the close link between this phenomenon and the myth of the 'border', the conquest of new spaces to productive activities-almost Unlimited-by man. Moreover, the global nature of that transformation has been shown very clearly in the passing of the baton in the role of guiding the country between England and the U.S., as an act emblematic of the affirmation of a new phase in the global economy and the trend to ever-greater interconnection between the different systems of production and trade. Indeed, the history of the twentieth century, despite its intractable conflicts and imbalances fund, presented the distinctive character of an integrated growth and continuous extension of international economic relations.

In conclusion, globalization, if they correspond to real observations made so far, is hardly a novelty, but can be traced back in another form-and size-even at times very far away. In addition, a more careful assessment of the phenomenon in terms of history may make it clearly intelligible picture of the risks and opportunities related to it.

The integration process and globalization is not in itself neither good nor bad. It is the 'Luddites' contemporary symptom of a malaise not only conservative but also an ideological rejection and ceiling, to confuse the horizon of the future. It is exaggerated and irrational optimism of the users of nothing, of 'hyper' and speculators without any rule to determine an adverse opinion on the processes of profound transformation. However, an analyst with baked observation skills and critical thinking seems quite plausible that the illiberal and authoritarian world of Orwell remains confined long in a beautiful novel [17]. Perilous, if the 'new economy' and-to paraphrase Huxley [18] - the 'new world' that should be identified as resulting from the development of knowledge from that of mere profits, innovative paradigm is entirely unambiguous.

However, simply having the intention to examine the evolution of a phenomenon that has been defined as 'globalization', we can limit ourselves to consider it as an outgrowth of the complex history of humanity, examining the nature and diversity of characters in different ages, as has been done, without expressing any final opinion of value. Already this analysis could be useful to those who are interested, especially young people, to provide an assessment of the phenomenon-weighted more than current-and to undertake its own self-effort of analysis and reflection, which is always welcome as a true element of enrichment of individuals and society.



Notes [1] Sen, A., Globalization and freedom. Milano, Arnoldo Mondadori, 2002, 15-16.
[2] Information Technology is the "term that expresses the set of all the technologies for processing, storage, use and disclosure of information" (Longo, F., computing dictionary. The database Information Technology. Venezia, Venice University, 1994-2002 ), while Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is the "term that emphasizes the aspect the communications of IT in education. The notation includes all ICT tools for communication network hardware and software "(Longo, F., The Computer Dictionary ..., op. Cit., ).
[3] Da Empoli, G., Overdose. The society too. Venezia, Marsilio, 2002, 11.
[4] Sen, A., Globalization ..., op. cit., 14-15. Sen continues its consideration, noting that: "Globalization relations is certainly not what the participants want to stop the movement, since in that case they should start by stopping themselves. "
[5] Cf Burke, P., A historiographical revolution. The school of" Annales ", 1929-1989 . Bari, Laterza, 1992, ed. orig. The French historical revolution. The 'Annales' school, 1929-89. Oxford-Cambridge, Polity Press - Basil Blackwell, 1990. This fundamental historiographical school of the twentieth century, all linked to the experience of the innovative "Annales," provided a clue of great significance, especially in light of the latest theories. The great economic changes, in fact, could not be considered in their narrowest sense, but were included in a unified vision in a "global", which included geography as history, individual and group events such as the social processes and the events of a general nature: in this way, it loses any value type setting economic concerns and not just the reference to the quantitative data to provide a clear explanation of the phenomena and events essential humanity.
[6] Cf Wallerstein, I., The modern world economy (3 vols.). Bologna, Il Mulino, 1978-1995, ed. orig. The modern world-system. New York-London-San Diego, Academic Press, 1974-1989.
[7] Cf Braudel, F., The dynamics of capitalism. Bologna, Il Mulino, 1981, ed. orig. La dynamique du capitalisme. Paris, Éditions Arthaud, 1985 (first published in 1977 - a conference held at Johns Hopkins University in 1976 - in Paris, "Champs" - Flammarion, n. 192). According to Braudel: "You must use two words: global economy and world-economy, of which the latter is more important than the first. Global economy mean for the world economy at large, the 'market of the whole universe, "as said already Sismondi. For world-economy, a term that I built from Weltwirtschaft by the German, I mean the economy of this part of our planet, provided that it forms a totality, a whole "(ibid., 76). According to Wallerstein, in reference to the term world-economy: "In English it is a translation of the French world-economy, which in turn Braudel himself has invented as a translation from German Weltwirtschaft. However, Weltwirtschaft may mean "the economy of the whole world: world economy would be in French, English and Italian world economy "world economy". Weltwirtschaft but can also mean "an economy that is itself a world, although its boundaries do not enclose the entire world." To make this concept in France, Braudel has joined the two words with a hyphen monde economies and achieving world-economy "(Wallerstein, I., The ..., op. Cit., Vol. I, 15).
[ 8] Braudel, F., The dynamics ..., op. cit., 78.
[9] Idem, "Introduction to the Italian edition," in Wallerstein, I., The ..., op. cit ., vol. I, 9.
[10] Beck, U., What is globalization? risks and prospects planetary society. Roma, Carocci, 1999, 39, ed. orig. Was ist Globalisierung? Irtümer des globalismus - Antworten auf Globalisierung. Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp Verlag, 1997.
[11] Cf Wallerstein, I., "La mondialisation n'est pas nouvelle," Le capitalisme historique afterword. Paris, Éditions la Découverte, 2002, now .
[12] For an overview of the economic history of these periods-but-not just with particular reference to the phenomenon of expansion and, later, of capitalist development on a large scale, refer to the recent volume of Vitoria , A. (Coord.), the expansion development. An economic history of Europe. Turin, Giappichelli, 2002.
[13] Dupront, A., Space and humanism. The invention of the new world. Venice, Marsilio, 1993, 103, ed. orig. Espace et humanism. Paris, the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, 1946.
[14] With these words, the Arabs showed the Atlantic Ocean.
[15] Cf Pollard, S., Peaceful Conquest. The industrialization in Europe from 1760 to 1970. Bologna, Il Mulino, 1984, ed. orig. Peaceful conquest. The Industrialization of Europe 1760-1970. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1981.
[16] It is only after the success and spread of "industrial revolution" that even taking the crisis as inevitable because of the abundance of goods, excess capacity productive.
[17] Cf Orwell, G., 1984. Milano, Arnoldo Mondadori, 1950, ed. orig. Nineteen eighty-four: a novel. London, Secker & Warburg, 1949.
[18] Cf Huxley, A., Brave New World. Milano, Arnoldo Mondadori, 1933, ed. orig. Brave new world. London, Chatto & Windus, 1932.